A Hebrew word, signifying tradition: it is used for a mysterious kind of science pretended to have been delivered by revelation to the ancient Jews, and transmitted by oral tradition to those of our times; serving for interpretation of the books both of nature and Scripture.
The Jewish doctors who profess the study of the
cabbala. They study principally the combination of particular words, letters,
and numbers; and by this, they say, they see clearly into the sense of Scripture.
In their opinion, there is not a word, letter, number, or accent, in the law,
without some mystery in it; and they even pretend to discover what is future by
this vain study.
Dr. Smith has given us the following description
of the Cabbalistic rabbies.
They have employed the above methods of
interpretation, which have rendered the Scripture a convenient instrument of
subserviency to any purpose which they might choose. Disregarding the
continuity of subject, and the harmony of parts, in any Scriptural composition,
they selected sentences, and broken pieces of sentences, and even single words
and detached letters; and these they proposed to the ignorant and abused
multitude as the annunciations of truth and authority. To ascertain the native
sense of the sacred writers, however momentous and valuable, was no object of
their desire. Attention to the just import of words, to the scope of argument,
and to the connection of parts, was a labour from which they were utterly
averse, and which they impiously despised. Instead of such faithful and honest
endeavours to know the will of God, they stimulated a sportive fancy, a corrupt
and often absurd ingenuity, to the invention of meanings the most remote from
the design of the inspired writer, and the most foreign from the dictates of an
unsophisticated understanding. No part of the Scriptures was safe from this
profanation. The plainest narrative, the most solemn command, the most clear
and interesting declaration of doctrine, were made to bend beneath this
irreverent violence. History the most true, the most ancient, and the most
important in the world, was considered merely as the vehicle of mystic
allegory. The rule of faith, and the standard of indissoluble duty, were made
flexible and weak as the spider's web, and the commandments of God were
rendered void. See Dr. Smith's Sermon on the Apostolic Ministry compared with
the Pretensions of spurious Religion and false Philosophy.
A sect who sprung up about the year 130; so called, because they esteemed Cain worthy of the greatest honours. They honoured those who carry in Scripture the most visible marks of reprobation; as the inhabitants of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abram. They had in particular great veneration for Judas, under the pretence that the death of Christ had saved mankind.
A branch of the Hussites in Bohemia and Moravia, in the fifteenth century. The principal point in which they differed from the church of Rome was the use of the chalice (calix) or communicating in both kinds. Calixtins was also a name given to those among the Lutherans who followed the opinions of George Calixtus, a celebrated divine in the sevententh century, who endeavoured to unite the Romish, Lutheran, and Calvinistic churches, in the bonds of charity and mutual benevolence. He maintained, 1. that the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, by which he meant those elementary principles whence all its truths flow, were preserved pure in all three communions, and were contained in that ancient form of doctrine that is vulgarly known by the name of the apostles' creed.--2. that the tenets and opinions which had been constantly received by the ancient doctors, during the first five centuries, were to be considered as of equal truth and authority with the express declarations and doctrines of Scripture.
Generally denotes God's invitation to man to
participate the blessing of salvation: it is termed effectual, to distinguish
it from that external or common call of the light of nature, but especially of
the Gospel, in which men are invited to come to God, but which has no saving
effect upon the heart: thus it is said, "Many are called, but few
chosen." Matt. xxii. 14. Effectual calling has been more particularly
defined to be " the work of God's Spirit, whereby, convincing us of our
sin and misery, enlightening our minds with the knowledge of Christ, and
renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ
freely offered to us in the Gospel." This may farther be considered as a
call from darkness to light, 1 Pet. ii. 9; from bondage to liberty, Gal. ii. 13;
from the fellowship of the world to the fellowship of Christ, 1 Cor. i. 9; from
misery to happiness, 1 Cor. vii. 15; from sin to holiness, 1 Thess. iv. 7;
finally, from all created good to the enjoyment of eternal felicity, 1 Pet. v.
10. It is considered in the Scripture as an holy calling, 2 Tim. i. 9; an high
calling, Phil. iii. 14; an heavenly calling, Heb. iii. 1; and without
repentance, as God will never cast off any who are once drawn to him, Rom. xi.
29.
It has been a matter of dispute whether the
Gospel call should be general, i.e. preached to all men indiscriminately. Some
suppose that, as the elect only will be saved, it is to be preached only to
them; and, therefore, cannot invite all to come to Christ. But to this it is
answered, that an unknown decree can be no rule of action, Deut. xxix. 29.
Prov. ii. 13; that, as we know not who are the elect, we cannot tell but he may
succeed our endeavours by enabling those who are addressed to comply with the
call, and believe; that it is the Christian minister's commission to preach the
Gospel to every creature, Mark xvi. 15; that the inspired writers never
confined themselves to preach to saints only, but reasoned with and persuaded
sinners, 2 Cor. v. 11:--and, lastly that a general address to men's consciences
has been greatly successful in promoting their conversion. Acts ii. 23,41. But
it has been asked, if none but the elect can believe, and no man has any
ability in himself to comply with the call, and as the Almighty knows that none
but those to whom he gives grace can be effectually called, of what use is it
to insist on a general and external call? To this it is answered, that, by the
external call, gross enormous crimes are often avoided; habits of vice have
been partly conquered; and much moral good at least has been produced. It also
observed, that though a man cannot convert himself, yet he has a power to do
some things that are materially good, though not good in all those
circumstances that accompany or flow from regeneration: such were Ahab's
humility, 1 Kings xxi 29; Nineveh's repentance, Jer. iii. 5; and Herod's
hearing of John, Mark vi. 20. On the whole, the design of God in giving this
common call in the Gospel is the salvation of his people, the restraining of
many from wicked practices and the setting forth of the glorious work of
redemption by Jesus Christ. See Gill and Ridgley's Body of Div.; Witsius on the
Cov.; and Bennet's Essay on the Gospel Dispensation.
Those who embrace the doctrine and sentiments of
Calvin, the celebrated reformer of the Christian church from Romish
superstition and doctrinal errors.
John Calvin was born at Nogen, in Picardy, in the
year 1509. He first studied the civil law, and was afterwards made professor of
divinity at Geneva, in the year 1536. His genius, learning, eloquence, and
piety, rendered him respectable even in the eyes of his enemies.
The name of Calvinists seems to have been given
at first to those who embraced not merely the doctrine, but the church
government and discipline established at Geneva, and to distinguish them from
the Lutherans. But since the meeting of the synod of Dort, the name has been
chiefly applied to those who embrace his leading views of the Gospel, to distinguish
them from the Arminians.
The leading principles taught by Calvin, were the
same as those of Augustine. The main doctrines by which those who are called
after his name are distinguished from the Arminians, are reduced to five
articles: and which, from their being the principal points discussed at the
synod of Dort, have since been denominated the five points. These are,
predestination, particular redemption, total depravity, effectual calling, and
the certain perseverance of the saints.
The following statement is taken, principally
from the writings of Calvin and the decisions at Dort, compressed in as few
words as possible.
1. They maintain that God hath chosen a certain
number of the fallen race of Adam in Christ, before the foundation of the
world, unto eternal glory, according to his immutable purpose, and of his free
grace and love, without at least foresight of faith, good works, or any
conditions performed by the creature; and that the rest of mankind he was
pleased to pass by, and ordain to dishonour and wrath, for their sins, to the
praise of his vindictive justice.
In proof of this they allege, among many other
Scripture passages, the following: "According as he hath chosen us in him
before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy, and without blame
before him in love.--For he saith to Moses, I will have mercy on whom I will
have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion. So,
then, it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God, that
showeth mercy. Thou wilt say, then, Why doth he yet find fault; for who hath
resisted his will? Nay, but, O man! who art thou that repliest against God?
Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?
Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel
unto honour and another unto dishonour?--Hath God cast away his people whom he
foreknew? Wot ye not what the Scripture saith of Elias? Even so at this present
time, also, there is a remnant according to the election of grace. And if by
grace, then it is no more of works. What then? Israel hath not obtained that
which he seeketh for, but the election hath obtained it, and the rest are
blinded.--Whom he did predestinate, them he also called.--We give thanks to God
always for you brethren beloved of the Lord, because God hath from the
beginning chosen you to salvation, through sanctification of the Spirit and
belief of the truth.--As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed."
Eph. i. 4. Rom. ix. xi. 1-6. viii. 29,30. 2 Thess. ii. 13.Acts xiii. 48. They
think also that the greater part of these passages, being found in the
epistolary writings, after the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, who was promised
to guide the apostles into all truth, is an argument in favour of the doctrine.
They do not consider predestination, however, as
affecting the agency or accountableness of creatures, or as being to them any
rule of conduct. On the contrary, they suppose them to act as freely, and to be
as much the proper subjects of calls, warnings, exhortations, promises, and
threatenings, as if no decree existed. The connexion in which the doctrine is
introduced by the divines at Dort, is to account for one sinner's believing and
being saved rather than another; and such, the Calvinists say, is the
connection which it occupies in the Scriptures.
With respect to the conditional predestination
admitted by the Arminians, they say that an election upon faith or good works
foreseen, is not that of the Scriptures; for that election is there made the
cause of faith and holiness, and cannot, for this reason, be the effect of
them. With regard to predestination to death, they say, if the question be,
Wherefore did God decree to punish those who are punished? the answer is, On
account of their sins. But if it be, Wherefore did he decree to punish them
rather than others? there is no other reason to be assigned, but that so it
seemed good in his sight. Eph. i. 3,4. John vi. 37. Rom. viii. 29, 30. Acts
xiii. 48. 1 Pet. i.1. Rom. ix. 15, 16. xi. 5,6.
2. They maintain that though the death of Christ
be a most perfect sacrifice, and satisfaction for sins, of infinite value,
abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world; and though on
this ground the Gospel is to be preached to all mankind indiscriminately; yet
it was the will of God that Christ, by the blood of the cross, should
efficaciously redeem all those, and those only, who were from eternity elected
to salvation, and given to him by the Father. Calvin does not appear to have
written on this subject as a controversy, but his comments on Scripture agree
with the above statement. The following positions are contained in the
resolutions of the synod of Dort, under this need of doctrine:--"The death
of the Son of God is the only and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for
sins, of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of
the whole world.--The promise of the Gospel is, that whosoever believeth in
Christ crucified shall not perish, but have everlasting life; which promise,
together with the command to repent and believe, ought promiscuously and
indiscriminately to be published and proposed to all people and individuals, to
whom God in his good pleasure sends the Gospel.--Whereas, many who are called
by the Gospel do not repent nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief; this
proceeds not from any defect or insufficiency in the sacrifice of Christ
offered on the cross, but from their own fault.--As many as truly believe, and
are saved by the death of Christ from their sins, and from destruction, have to
ascribe it to the mere favour of God, which he owes to no one, given them in
Christ from eternity.--For it was the most free counsel, and gracious will and
intention of God the Father, that the quickening and saving efficacy of the
most precious death of his Son should exert itself in all the elect, to give
unto them only justifying faith, and by it to conduct them infallibly to
salvation; that is, it was the will of God that Christ, by the blood of the
cross, whereby he confirmed the new covenant, should efficaciously redeem out
of every people, tribe, nation, and language, all those, and those only, who
were from eternity elected to salvation, and given to him by the Father."
These positions they appear to have considered as
not only a declaration of the truth, but an answer to the arguments of the
Remonstrants.
In proof of the doctrine, they allege among
others the following Scripture passages: "Thou hast given him power over
all flesh, that he should give eternal life to as many as thou hast given
him.--The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep.--I lay down my life for
the sheep.--He died not for that nation only, but that he might gather together
in one the children of God that are scattered abroad.--He gave himself for us,
that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto himself a peculiar
people, zealous of good works.--He loved the church, and gave himself for it,
that he might sanctify, and cleanse it and present it to himself, &c.--And
they sang a new song, saying, Thou art worthy; for thou wast slain, and hast
redeemed us to God by thy blood, out of every kindred, and tongue, and people,
and nation." John xvii. 2. x. 11, 15. xi. 52. Tit. ii. 14. Eph. v. 25-27.
Rev. v. 9.
3. They maintain that mankind are totally
depraved, in consequence of the fall of the first man, who, being their public
head, his sin involved the corruption of all his posterity, and which
corruption extends over the whole soul, and renders it unable to turn to God,
or to do any thing truly good, and exposes it to his righteous displeasure,
both in this world and that which is to come.
The explanation of original sin, as given by
Calvin, is as follows: "Original sin seems to be the inheritable
descending perverseness and corruption of our nature, poured abroad into all
the parts of the soul, which first maketh us deserving of God's wrath, and then
also bringeth forth those works in us, called, in Scripture, the works of the
flesh. These two things are distinctly to be noted, that is, that, being thus
in all parts of our nature corrupted and perverted, we are now, even for such
corruption only, holden worthy of damnation, and stand convicted before God to
whom nothing is acceptable but righteousness, innocence, and purity. And yet we
are not bound in respect of another's fault; for where it is said that by the
sin of Adam we are made subject to the judgment of God, Rom. v. 18. it is not
so to be taken, as if we, innocent and undeserving, did bear the blame of his
fault; but as, in consequence of his offence, we are ultimately clothed with
the curse, therefore it is said that he hath bound us. Nevertheless from him
not the punishment only came upon us, but also the infection distilled from him
abideth in us, to the which the punishment is justly due."
The resolutions of the divines at Dort on this
head, contain the following positions. "Such as man was after the fall,
such children did he beget--corruption by the righteous judgment of God being
derived from Adam to his posterity--not by imitation, but by the propagation of
a vicious nature. Wherefore all men are conceived in sin, and are born the
children of wrath, unfit for every good connected with salvation, prone to
evil, dead in sins, and the servants of sin; and without the Holy Spirit
regenerating them, they neither will nor can return to God, amend their
depraved natures, nor dispose themselves for its amendment.
In proof of this doctrine, the Calvinists allege,
among other Scripture passages, the following: "By one man sin entered
into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that
all have sinned.--By one man's disobedience many were made sinners.--I was born
in sin, and shapen in iniquity.--God saw that the wickedness of man was great
upon the earth, and that every imagination of his heart was only evil
continually.--God looked down from heaven upon the children of men, to see if
there were any that did understand, that did seek God. Every one of them is
gone back; they are altogether become filthy; there is none that doeth good, no
not one.--And you hath he quickened who were dead in trespasses and sins.
Wherein in time past ye walked according to the course of this world, among whom
also we all had our conversation in times past, in the lust of our flesh,
fulfilling the desires of the flesh, fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of
the mind; and were by nature the children of wrath, even as others." Rom.
v. 12-19. Ps. li. 5. Gen. vi. 5. Ps. liii. 2,3. Rom. iii. Eph. ii. 1-3.
4. They maintain that all whom God hath
predestinated unto life, he is pleased, in his appointed time, effectually to
call by his word and Spirit out of that state of sin and death in which they
are by nature, to grace and salvation by Jesus Christ.
They admit that the Holy Spirit, as calling men
by the ministry of the Gospel, may be resisted: and that where this is the
case, "the fault is not is the Gospel, nor in Christ offered by the
Gospel, nor in God calling by the Gospel, and also conferring various gifts
upon them; but in the called themselves. They contend, however, that where men
come at the divine call, and are converted, it is not to be ascribed to
themselves, as though by their own free will they made themselves to differ,
but merely to him who delivers them from the power of darkness, and translates
them into the kingdom of his dear Son, and whose regenerating influence is
certain and efficacious."
In proof of this doctrine the Calvinists allege,
among others, the following Scripture passages: "Whom he did predestinate,
them he also called; and whom he called, them he also glorified.--That ye may
know what is the exceeding greatness of his power to usward who believe,
according to the working of his mighty power, which he wrought in Christ when
he raised him from the dead.--Not of works, lest any man should boast. For we
are his workmanship created in Christ Jesus unto good works.--God, that
commanded the light to shine out of darkness, hath shined into our hearts,
&c.--I will take away the stony heart out of their flesh, and will give
them hearts of flesh." Rom. viii. 29. Eph. i. 19, 20. ii. 9, 10. 2 Cor.
iv. 6. Ezek. xxxvi 26.
5. Lastly: They maintain that those whom God has
effectually called, and sanctified by his Spirit, shall never finally fall from
a state of grace. They admit that true believers may fall partially, and would
fall totally and finally but for the mercy and faithfulness of God, who keepeth
the feet of his saints; also, that he who bestoweth the grace of perseverance,
bestoweth it by means of reading and hearing the word, meditation,
exhortations, threatenings, and promises; but that none of these things imply
the possibility of a believer's falling from a state of justification.
In proof of this doctrine they allege the
following among other Scripture passages:--"I will put my fear in their
hearts, and they shall not depart from me.--He that believeth, and is baptized,
shall be saved.--The water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of
water springing up into everlasting life.--This is the Father's will, that of
all which he hath given me I should lose nothing.--This is life eternal, to
know thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent.--Whosoever
is born of God doth not commit sin, for his seed remaineth in him; and he
cannot sin, because he is born of God. They went out from us, but they were not
of us; for if they had been of us, they would have continued with us: but they
went out, that they might be made manifest that they were not all of us.--Now
unto him that is able to keep you from falling, and to present you faultless
before the presence of his glory with exceeding joy, to the only wise God our
Saviour, be glory and majesty, dominion and power, both now and ever,
Amen." Jer. xxxii. 40. Mark xvi. 16. John iv. 14. vi. 40. xvii. 3. 1 John
iii. 9. ii. 19. Jude 24, 25.
Such were the doctrines of the old Calvinists,
and such in substance are those of the present times. In this, however, as in
every other denomination, there are considerable shades of difference.
Some think Calvin, though right in the main, yet
carried things too far; these are commonly known by the name of Moderate
Calvinists. Others think he did not go far enough; and these are known by the
name of High Calvinists.
It is proper to add, that the Calvinistic system
includes in it the doctrine of three co-ordinate persons in the Godhead, in one
nature, and of two natures in Jesus Christ, forming one person. Justification
by faith alone, or justification by the imputed righteousness of Christ, forms
also an essential part of this system. They suppose that on the one hand our
sins are imputed to Christ, and on the other, that we are justified by the
imputation of Christ's righteousness to us; that is, Christ, the innocent, was
treated by God as if he were guilty, that we, the guilty, might out of regard
to what he did and suffered, be treated as if we were innocent and righteous.
Calvinism originally subsisted in its greatest
purity in the city of Geneva; from which place it was first propagated into
Germany, France, the United Provinces, and Britain. In France it was abolished
by the revocation of the edict of Nantz. It has been the prevailing religion in
the United Provinces ever since 1571. The theological system of Calvin was
adopted and made the public rule of faith in England under the reign of Edward
VI. The church of Scotland also was modeled by John Knox, agreeably to the
doctrine, rites, and form of ecclesiastical government established at Geneva.
In England, Calvinism had been on the decline from the time of queen Elizabeth
until about sixty years ago, when it was again revived, and has been on the
increase ever since. The major part of the clergy, indeed, are not Calvinists,
though the articles of the church of England are Calvinistical. It deserves to
be remarked, however, that Calvinism is preached in a considerable number of
the churches in London; in nearly all the dissenting meetings of the Presbyterians,
Baptists, and Independents; and in all the chapels of Whitefield, Lady
Huntingdon, and others of that class. In Scotland it continues also to exist as
the established religion; and within a few years it has much revived in that
country, through the influence of Mr. Haldane and others; but as those among
whom this revival has taken place are not of the established church, they have
been treated with indifference by the clergy, and called Haldanists.
Calvin considered every church as a separate and
independent body, invested with the power of legislation for itself. He
proposed that it should be governed by presbyteries and synods composed of
clergy and laity, without bishops, or any clerical subordination; and
maintained that the province of the civil magistrate extended only to its
protection and outward accommodation. He acknowledged a real, though spiritual
presence of Christ in the eucharist; and he confined the privilege of communion
to pious and regenerate believers. These sentiments, however, are not imbibed
by all who are called Calvinists.
See Calvin's Institutes; Life of Calvin; Brine's
Tracts; Jonathan Edwards' Works; Gill's Cause of God and Truth; Toplady's
Historic Proof and Works at large; Assembly's Catechism; Fuller's Calvinistic
and Socinian Systems compared.
An order founded by St. Romuald, and Italian fanatic, in the eleventh century. The manner of life he enjoined his disciples to observe was this:--They dwelt in separate cells, and met together only at the time of prayer. Some of them, during the two Lents in the year, observed an inviolable silence, and others for the space of a hundred days. On Sundays and Thursdays they fed on herbs, and the rest of the week only on bread and water.
A copy of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, in Greek and Latin. Beza found it in the monastery of Irenxus, at Lyons, in 1562, and gave it to the university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a quarto, and written on vellum: sixty-six leaves of it are much torn and mutilated; and ten of these are supplied by a later transcriber. From this and the Clermont copy of St. Paul's epistles, Beza published his larger annotations in 1582. See Dr. Kipling's edition of it.
A sect in Scotland, who separated from the Presbyterians in 1666, and continued long to hold their religious assemblies in the fields. They took their name from Richard Cameron, a famous field-preacher, who, refusing to accept the indulgence to tender consciences, granted by king Charles II. thinking such an acceptance an acknowledgment of the king's supremacy, made a defection from his brethren, and even headed a rebellion, in which he was killed. The Cameronians adhere rigidly to the form of government established in 1648. There are not, it is said, above fourteen or fifteen congregations among them, and these not large.
Or CAMERONITES, the denomination of a party of Calvinists in France, who asserted that the will of man is only determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses into them; and that God does not move the will physically, but only morally, in virtue of its dependence on the judgment. They had this name from John Cameron, who was born at Glasgow in 1580, and who was professor there, and afterwards at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur. The synod of Dort was severe upon them; yet it seems the only difference was this:--The synod had defined that God not only illuminates the understanding, but gives motion to the will, by making an internal change therein. Cameron only admitted the illumination whereby the mind is morally moved; and explained the sentiment of the Synod of Dort so as to make the two opinions consistent.
Is a disposition to form a fair and impartial judgment on the opinions and actions of others; or a temper of mind unsoured by envy, unruffled by malice, and unseduced by prejudice; sweet without weakness, and impartial without rigour. Candour is a word which, in the present day, is found exceedingly convenient. To the infidel it is a shelter for his scepticism, to the ignorant for his ignorance, to the lukewarm for his indifference, and to the irreligious for their error. "True candour is different from that guarded, inoffensive language, and that studied openness of behaviour, which we so frequently meet with among men of the world. It consists not in fairness of speech only, but in fairness of heart. It is not blind attachment, external courtesy, or a time-serving principle. Exempt, on the one land, from the dark jealousy of a suspicious mind, it is no less removed, on the other, from that easy credulity which is imposed on by every specious pretence. Its manners are unaffected, and its professions sincere. 'It conceals faults, but it does not invent virtues. In fine, it is the happy medium between undistinguishing credulity and universal suspicion." See LIBERALITY.
A word used to denote the authorised catalogue
of the sacred writings. "The Greek word" says Dr. Owen, "which
gives rise to the term canonical, seems to be derived from the Hebrew kaneh,
which in general signifies any reed whatever, 1 Kings xiv. 15. Isa. xliii. 3.
and particularly a reed made into an instrument, wherewith they measured their
buildings, containing six cubits in length, Ezek. xl. 7.xliii. 16. and hence
indefinitely it is taken for a rule or measure. Besides, it signifies the beam
and tongue of a balance. Isa. xlvi. 6. 'they weighed silver on the cane; that
is, saith the Targum, 'in the balance.' This also is the primary and proper
signification of the Greek word. Hence common, wherein it signifies a moral
rule. Aristotle calls the law the rule of the administration; and hence it is
that the written word of God being in itself absolutely right, and appointed to
be the rule of faith and obedience, is eminently called 'canonical.'"
The ancient canon of the books of the Old
Testament, ordinarily attributed to Ezra, was divided into the law, the
prophets, and the hagiographia, to which our Saviour refers, Luke xxiv. 45. The
same division is also mentioned by Josephus. This is the canon allowed to have
been followed by the primitive church till the council of Carthage; and,
according to Jerome, this consisted of no more than twenty-two books, answering
to the number of the Hebrew alphabet, though at present they are classed into
twenty-four divisions. That council enlarged the canon very considerably,
taking into it the apocryphal books; which the council of Trent farther
enforced, enjoining them to be received as books of holy Scripture, upon pain
of anathema. The Romanists, in defence of this canon, say, that it is the same
with that of the council of Hippo, held in 393; and with that of the third
council of Carthage of 397, at which were present forty-six bishops, and among
the rest St. Augustine. Their canon of the New Testament, however, perfectly
agrees with ours. It consists of books that are well known, some of which have
been universally acknowledged; such are the four Gospels, the Acts of the
Apostles, thirteen epistles of St. Paul, first of St. Peter, and first of St.
John; and others, concerning which doubts were entertained, but which were
afterwards received as genuine; such are the Epistle to the Hebrews, that of
James, the second of Peter, the second and third of John, that of Jude, and the
Revelation. These books were written at different times; and they are
authenticated, not by the decrees of councils or infallible authority, but by
such evidence as is thought sufficient in the case of any other ancient
writings. They were extensively diffused, and read in every Christian society;
they were valued and preserved with care by the first Christians; they were
cited by Christian writers of the second, third, and fourth centuries, as
Irenxus, Clement the Alexandrian, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, &c.; and
their genuineness is proved by the testimony of those who were contemporary
with the apostles themselves. The four Gospels, and most of the other books of
the New Testament, were collected either by one of the apostles, or some of
their disciples and successors, before the end of the first century. The
catalogue of canonical books furnished by the more ancient Christian writers,
as Origen, about A.D. 210, Eusebius and Athanasius in 315, Epiphanius in 370,
Jerome in 382, austin in 394, and many others, agrees with that which is now
received among Christians.
See articles BIBLE, CHRISTIANITY, SCRIPTURES;
Blair's Canon of Scripture; Jones's Canonical authority of the New Test.; Michaelis's
Lect. on the New Test.; Du Pin's Canon of Script. v. 1.; Pridaux's Connections
v.1.; Dr. Owen on the Hebrews, Introd.
A person who possesses a prebend or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. Canons are of no great antiquity. Paschier observes, that the name was not know before Charlemagne: at least, the first we hear of are in Gregory de Tours, who mentions a college of canons instituted by Baldwin XVI, archbishop of that city, in the time of Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the institution of this order to Chrodegangus, bishop of Mentz, about the middle of the eighth century.
In an ecclesiastical sense, is a rule either of doctrine or discipline, enacted especially by a council, and confirmed by the authority of the sovereign. Canons are properly decisions of matters of religion, or regulations of the policy and discipline of a church made by councils, either general, national, or provincial; such are the canons of the council of Nice, of Trent, &c.
Are certain stated times of the day consigned more especially by the Romish church to the offices of prayer and devotion; such are matins, lauds, &c. In England the canonical hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon; before or after which marriage cannot be legally performed in any church.
In the ancient church, were testimonials of the orthodox faith which the bishops and clergy sent each other to keep up the catholic communion, and distinguish orthodox Christians from heretics.
The rule of living prescribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community. The canonical life was a kind of medium between the monastic and clerical lives.
Is that submission which, by the ecclesiastical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to their bishops, and the religious to their superiors.
A ceremony in the Romish church, by which
persons deceased are ranked in the catalogue of the saints. It succeeds
beatification. Before a beatified person is canonized, the qualifications of
the candidate are strictly examined into, in some consistories held for that
purpose; after which one of the consistorial advocates, in the presence of the
pope and cardinals, makes the panegvric of the person who is to be proclaimed a
saint, and gives a particular detail of his life and miracles; which being
done, the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints the day.
On the day of canonization, the pope officiates
in white, and their eminences are dressed in the same colour. St. Peter's
church is hung with rich tapestry, upon which the arms of the pope, and of the
prince or state requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold and silver.
A great number of lights blaze all round the church, which is crowded with
pious souls, who wait with devout impatience till the new saint has made his
public entry, as it were, into paradise, that they may offer up their petitions
to him without danger of being rejected.
The following maxim with regard to canonization
is now observed, though it has not been followed above a century, viz. not to
enter into the inquiries prior to canonization till fifty years, at least,
after the death of the person to be canonized. By the ceremony of canonization
it appears that this rite of the modern Romans has something in it very like the
apotheosis or deification of the ancient Romans, and in all probability takes
it rise from it; at least, several ceremonies of the same nature are
conspicuous in both.
Religious, of the order of St. Francis. They are clothed with brown or grey; always barefooted; never go in a coach, nor ever shave their beards.
A denomination which appeared in the twelfth century, so called from a singular kind of cap which distinguished their party. They wore upon their caps a leaden image of the Virgin Mary, and declared publicly that their purpose was to level all distinctions, to abrogate magistracy, and to remove all subordination among mankind, and to restore that primitive liberty, that natural equality, which were the inestimable privilege of the first mortals.
A Jewish sect, which adheres closely to the text and letter of the Scriptures, rejecting the rabbinical interpretations and the cabbala. The Talmud appearing in the beginning of the sixth century, those of the best sense among the Jews were disgusted at the ridiculous fables with which it abounded. But about the year 750, Anan, a Babylonish Jew, declared openly for the written word of God alone, exclusive of all tradition; and this declaration produced a schism. Those who maintained the Talmud being almost all rabbins, were called rabbinists; and the others, who rejected traditions, were called Caraites, or Scripturists, from the word cara, which in the Babylonish language signifies Scripture.
One of the chief governors of the Romish church, by whom the pope is elected out of their own number, which contains six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons: these constitute the sacred college, and are chosen by the pope. See POPE.
Justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four cardinal virtues, as being the basis of all the rest. See JUSTICE,&c.
Concern, or Anxiety of mind arising from the
uncertainty of something future, or the oppression of the present calamity.
Caution, attention to a particular subject; regard and support, when followed
with the particle of. Prudence signifies wisdom applied to practice; discretion
is the effect of prudence, and means a knowledge to govern or direct one's
self; by care we understand heed in order to preservation; caution implies a
greater degree of wariness.
Care is lawful when it consists in a serious
thought and earnest endeavour to please God; to embrace his Son, obey his
commands, submit to his providence, to promote our neighbours' temporal or
spiritual advantage, and to gain the goods of this life so far as necessary for
our health, family, comfort, and usefulness. It is sinful, when it leads us to
immoderate concern about earthly things, to be discontented with our lot, or to
make use of unlawful means to obtain worldly good; or when exercised in a way
of vain curiosity, John xxi. 22.
A term used for religion, or that serious attention we ought to pay to our best interests. It imports repentance, faith, devotion, and obedience. "It is considered as the one thing needful: as 1. It is matter of universal concern. 2. Of the highest importance. 3. Includes every thing worthy of our regard." 4. Essential to our peace here. 5. Without it we cannot obtain everlasting life, Luke x. 42. Jer. vi. 16. Heb. xii. 14.
Is his attention to and concern for the promotion of the welfare of his creatures, 1 Pet. v. 7. 1. That God does manifest this care is evident from the blessings we enjoy, the ordinances he has instituted, the promises he has given, and the provision he has made, Ps. lxxxiv. 11. Matt. vii. 12.--2. This care is entirely free, and unmerited on our part. Gen. xxxii. 10. Deut. vii. 6. Rom. iii. 23.--3. It is every way extensive, reaching to all his creatures and to all cases. Ps. cxlv.--4. It is superior to all human care and attention. He cares for us when others cannot; when others will not care for us; or when we cannot or will not care for ourselves. Ps. cxlii. 4,5. Jer. xlix. 11. Ps. xli. 3.--5. It is not only great, but perpetual. Through all the scenes of live, in death, and for ever. Heb. xiii. 5. John xvii. 9. See PROVIDENCE.
The followers of a noted impostor in the ninth century, who endeavoured to overthrow all the foundations of Mussulmanism. Carmath their prophet was a person of great austerity of life; and said that God had commanded him to pray not five times, with the Mussulmans, but fifty times a day. To comply with this, they often neglected their business; they ate many things forbidden by the law of Mahomet, and believed that angels were their guides in all their actions, and that the demons or ghosts are their enemies.
One of the four tribes of Mendicants, or begging friars; so named from Mount Carmel, formerly inhabited by Elias, Elisha, and the children of the prophets; from whom this order pretends to descend in uninterrupted succession. Their habit was at first white; but the pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for that of the Minims. They wear no linen shirts, but, instead of them, linsey-wolsey.
A branch of the ancient Gnostics, so called from Carpocrates, who in the second century revised and improved upon the errors of Simon Magus, Menender, Saturnius, and other Gnostics. See GNOSTICS.
A religious order founded A. D. 1080, by one Brudo; so called from the desert Chartreux, the place of their institution. Their rule is extremely severe. They must not go out of their cells, except to church, without leave of their superior; nor speak to any person without leave. They must not keep any meat or drink till next day: their beds are of straw covered with a felt; their clothing, two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak; all coarse. In the refectory they must keep their eyes on the dish, their hands on the table, their attention to the reader, and their hearts fixed on God. Women must not come into their churches.
An event that is not foreseen or intended. See CONTINGENCY.
One that studies and settles cases of conscience. It is said that Escobar has made a collection of the opinions of all the casuists before him. M. Le Feore, preceptor of Louis XIII. called the books of the casuists the art of quibbling with God; which does not seem far from truth, by reason of the multitude of distinctions and sublicties they abound with. Mayer has published a bibliotheca of casuists, containing an account of all the writers on cases of conscience, ranged under three heads; at first comprehending the Lutheran, the second the Calvinist, and the third the Romish casuists.
The doctrine and science of conscience and its
cases, with the rules and principles of resolving the same; drawn partly from
natural reason or equity, and partly from the authority of Scripture, the canon
law, councils, fathers, &c. To casuistry belongs the decision of all
difficulties arising about what a man may lawfully do or not do; what is sin or
not sin; what things a man is obliged to do in order to discharge his duty, and
what he may let alone without breach of it.
Some suppose that all books of casuistry are as
useless as they are tiresome. One who is really anxious to do his duty must be
very weak, it said, if he can imagine that he has much occasion for them; and
with regard to one who is negligent of it, the style of those writings is not
such as is likely to awaken him to more attention. The frivolous accuracy which
casuists attempt to introduce into subjects which do not admit of it, almost
necessarily betray them into dangerous errors; and at the same time render
their works dry and disagreeable, abounding in abstruse and metaphysical
distinctions, but incapable of exciting in the heart any of those emotions
which it is the principal use of books of morality to produce.
On the other hand, I think it may be observed,
that, though these remarks may apply to some, they cannot apply to all books of
casuistry. It must be acknowledged that nice distinctions, metaphysical
reasonings, and abstruse terms, cannot be of much service to the generality,
because there are so few who can enter into them; yet, when we consider how
much light is thrown upon a subject by the force of good reasoning, by viewing
a case in all its bearings, by properly considering all the objections that may
be made to it, and by examining it in every point of view; if we consider also
how little some men are accustomed to think, and yet at the same time possess
that tenderness of conscience which makes them fearful of doing wrong; we must
conclude that such works as these, when properly executed, may certainly be of
considerable advantage. The reader may consult Ames's Power and Cases of
Conscience; Bishop Taylor's Cuctor Dubitantium; Dr. Saunderson's De Obligatione
Conscienteae; Pike and Hayward's Cases; and Saurin's Christian Casuistry, in
4th vol. of his Sermons, p. 265, English edition.
Instructing by asking questions and correcting the answers. Catechising is an excellent mean of informing the mind, engaging the attention, and affecting the heart, and is an important duty incumbent on all who have children under their care. Children should not be suffered to grow up without instruction, under the pretence that the choice of religion ought to be perfectly free, and not biased by the influence and authority of parents, or the power of education. As they have capacities, and are more capable of knowledge by instruction than by the exercise of their own reasoning powers, they should certainly be taught. This agrees both with the voice of nature and the dictates of revelation, Deut. vi. 7. Prov. xxii.6. Eph. vi. 4. The propriety of this being granted, it may next be observed, that, in order to facilitate their knowledge, short summaries of religion extracted from the Bible, in the way of question and answer, may be of considerable use. 1. Hereby, says Dr. Watts, the principles of Christianity are reduced into short sentences, and easier to be understood by children.--2. Hereby these principles are not only thrown into a just and easy method, but every part is naturally introduced by a proper question; and the rehearsal of the answer is made far easier to a child than it would be if the child were required to repeat the whole scheme of religion.--3. This way of teaching hath, something familiar and delightful in it because it looks more like conversation and dialogue.--4. The very curiosity of the young mind is awakened by the question to know what the answer will be; and the child will take pleasure in learning the answer by heart, to improve its own knowledge. See next article.
A form of instruction by means of questions and answers. There have been various catechisms published by different authors, but many of them have been but ill suited to convey instruction to juvenile minds. Catechisms for children should be so framed as not to puzzle and confound, but to let the beams of divine light into their minds by degrees. They should be accommodated as far as possible to the weakness of their understandings; for mere learning sentences by rote, without comprehending the meaning, will be but of little use. In this way they will know nothing but words: it will prove a laborious task, and not a pleasure; confirm them in a bad habit of dealing in sounds instead of ideas; and after all, perhaps create in them an aversion to religion itself. Dr Watts advises that different catechisms should be composed for different ages and capacities; the questions and answers should be short, plain, and easy; scholastic terms, and logical distinctions should be avoided; the most practical points of religion should be inserted and one or more well chosen texts of Scripture should be added to support almost every answer, and to prove the several parts of it. The doctor has admirably exemplified his own rules in the catechism he has composed for children at three or four years old; that for children at seven or eight; his assembly's catechism, proper for youth at twelve of fourteen; his preservative from the sins and follies of childhood; his catechism of Scripture names, and his historical catechism. These are superior to any I know, and which I cannot but ardently recommend to parents and all those who have the care and instruction of children.
One whose charge is to instruct by questions, or
to question the uninstructed concerning religion.
The catechists of the ancient churches were
usually ministers, and distinct of the bishops and prebyters; and had their
catechumena, or auditories, apart. But they did not constitute any distinct
order of the clergy, being chosen out of any order. The bishop himself
sometimes performed the office; at other times, presbyters, readers, or
deacons. It was his business to expose the folly of the pagan superstition, to
remove prejudices, and answer objections; to discourse on behalf of the
Christian docrines; and to give instruction to those who had not sufficient
knowledge to qualify them for baptism.
The lowest order of Christians in the primitive
church. They had some title to the common name of Christians, being a degree
above pagans and heretics, though not consummated by baptism. They were
admitted to the state of catechumens by the imposition of hands, and the sign
of the cross. The children of believing parents were admitted catechumens as soon
as ever they were capable of instruction; but at what age those of heathen
parents might be admitted is no so clear. As to the time of their continuance
in this state, there were no general rules fixed about it; but the practice
varied according to the difference of times and places, and the readiness and
proficiency of the catechumens themselves. There were four orders or degrees of
catechumens. The first were those instructed privately without the church, and
kept at a distance, for some time, from the privilege of entering the church,
to make them the more eager and desirous of it. The next degree were the
audientes, so called from their being admitted to hear sermons and the
Scriptures read in the church, but were not allowed to partake of the prayers.
The third sort of catechumens were the genu flectentes, so called because they
received imposition of hands kneeling. The fourth order was the competentes et
electi; denoting the immediate candidates for baptism, or such as were
appointed to be baptized the next approaching festival; before which, strict
examination was made into their proficiency, under the several stages of
catechetical exercises.
After examination, they were exercised for twenty
days together, and were obliged to fasting and confession. Some days before
baptism they went veiled; and it was customary to touch their ears, saying,
Ephatha, i.e. Be opened; as also to anoint their eyes with clay: both
ceremonies being in imitation of our Savour's practice, and intended to signify
to the catechumens their condition both before and after their admission into
the Christian church.
A sect that spread much in the Latin church in the twelfth century. Their religion resembled the doctrine of the Manichaeans and Gnostics (see those articles.) They supposed that matter was the source of evil; that Christ was not clothed with a real body; that baptism and the Lord's supper were useless institutions; with a variety of other strange notions.
The chief church of a diocese; a church wherein is a bishop's see. The word comes from "chair;" the name seems to have taken its rise from the manner of sitting in the ancient churches of assemblies of private Christians. In these the council, i.e. the elders and priests, were called Presbyterium; at their head was the bishop, who held the place of chairman, Cathedralis or Cathedraticus; and the presbyters, who sat on either side, also called by the ancient fathers Assessores Episcoporum. The episcopal authority did not reside in the bishop alone, but in all the presbytery, whereof the bishop was president. A cathedral, therefore, originally was different from what it is now; the Christians, till the time of Constantine, having no liberty to build any temple. By their churches they only meant assemblies; and by cathedrals, nothing more than consistories.
Denotes any thing that is universal or general. The rise of heresies induced the primitive Christian church to assume to itself the appellation of catholic, being a characteristic to distinguish itself from all sects, who, though they had party names, sometimes sheltered themselves under the name of Christians. The Romish church now distinguished itself by catholic in opposition to all who have separated from her communion, and whom she considers as heretics and schismatics, and herself only as the true and Christian church. In the strict sense of the word, there is no catholic church in being; that is, no universal Christian communion.
A religious order in the thirteenth century; so called from their founder, Peter de Meuron, afterwards raised to the pontificate under the name of Celestine V. The Celestins rose two hours after midnight to say matins; ate no flesh, except when sick; and often fasted. Their habit consisted of a white gown, a capuche, a black scapulary, and shirts of serge.
The state of unmarried persons. Celibate, or celibacy, is a word chiefly used in speaking of the single life of the popish clergy, or the obligation they are under to abstain from marriage. The church of Rome imposes an universal celibacy on all her clergy, from the pope to the lowest deacon and subdeacon. The advocates for this usage pretend that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from the earliest apostolic ages. But the contrary is evident from numerous examples of bishops and archbishops who lived in a state of matrimony, without any prejudice to their ordination or their function. Neither our Lord nor his apostles laid the least restraint upon the connubial union: on the contrary, the Scriptures speak of it as honourable in all, without the least restriction as to persons. Heb. xiii.4. Matt. xix. 10,12. 1 Cor. vii. 2,9. St. Paul even assigns forbidding to marry as characteristic of the apostacy of the latter times, 1 Tim. iv. 3. The fathers, without making any distinction between clergy and laity, asserted the lawfulness of the marriage of all Christians. Marriage was not forbidden to bishops in the Eastern church till the close of the seventh century. Celibacy was not imposed on the Western clergy in general till the end of the eleventh century, though attempts had been made long before. Superstitious zeal for a sanctimonious appearance in the clergy seems to have promoted it at first; and crafty policy, armed with power, no doubt rivetted this clog on the sacerdotal order in later periods of the church. Pope Gregory VII. appears in this business to have had a view to separate the clergy as much as possible from all other interests, and to bring them into a total dependence upon his authority; to the end that all temporal power might in a high degree be subjugated to the papal jurisdiction. Forbidding to marry, therefore, has evidently the mark of the beast upon it. See MARRIAGE.
A place set apart for the burial of the dead. Anciently, none were buried in churches or churchyards: it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the cemeteries were without the walls. Among the primitive Christians these were held in great veneration. It even appears from Eusebius and Tertullian, that in the early ages they assembled for divine worship in the cemeteries. Valerian seems to have confiscated the cemeteries and other places of divine worship; but they were restored again by Gallienus. As the martyrs were buried in these places, the Christians chose them for building churches on, when Constantine established their religion; and hence some derive the rule which still obtains in the church of Rome, never to consecrate an altar without putting under it the relics of some saint.
The act of judging and blaming others for their faults. Faithfulness in reproving another differs from censoriousness: the former arises from love to truth, and respect for the person; the latter is a disposition that loves to find fault. However just censure may be where there is blame, yet a censorious spirit or rash judging must be avoided. It is usurping the authority and judgment of God. It is unjust, uncharitable, mischievous, productive of unhappiness to ourselves, and often the cause of disorder and confusion in society. See RASH JUDGING.
A sect, in the first century, who espoused most of the opinions of Simon Magus and the Manichaeans. They asserted two principles, good and bad. The first they called the Father of Jesus Christ; the latter the Creator of the world. They denied the incarnation and the resurrection, and rejected the books of the Old Testament.
An assemblage of several actions, forms, and
circumstances, and solemn. Applied to religious services, it signifies the
external rites and manner wherein the ministers of religion perform their
sacred functions. In 1646, M. Ponce published a history of ancient ceremonies,
tracing the rise, growth, and introduction of each rite into the church, and
its gradual advancement to superstition. Many of them were borrowed from
Judaism, but more from paganism. Dr. Middleton has given a fine discourse on
the conformity between the pagan and popish ceremonies, which he exemplifies in
the use of incense, holy water, lamps and candles before the shrines of saints,
voltive gifts round the shrines of the deceased, &c. In fact, the altars,
images, crosses, processions, miracles, and legends, nay, even the very
hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the present Romans, he
shows, are all copied from their heathen ancestors. An ample and magnificent
representation in figures of the religious ceremonies and customs of all
nations in the world, designed by Picart, is added, with historical
explanations, and many curious dissertations.
It has been a question, whether we ought to use
such rites and ceremonies which are merely of human appointment. On one side it
has been observed that we ought not. Christ alone is King in his church: he
hath instituted such ordinances and forms of worship as he hath judged fit and
necessary; and to add to them seems, at least, to carry in it an imputation on
his wisdom and authority, and hath this unanswerable objection to it, that it
opens the door to a thousand innovations (as the history of the church of Rome
hath sufficiently shown,) which are not only indifferent in themselves, but
highly absurd, and extremely detrimental to religion. That the ceremonies were
numerous under the Old Testament dispensation is no argument; for, say they. 1.
We respect Jewish ceremonies, because God hath not appointed them.--2. The
Jewish ceremonies were established by the universal consent of the nation;
human ceremonies are not so.--3. The former were fit and proper for the
purposes for which they were appointed; but the latter are often the
contrary.--4. The institutor of the Jewish ceremonies provided for the expense
of it; but no provision is made by God to support human ceremonies, or what he
has not appointed.
These arguments seem very powerful; but on the
other side of it has been observed, that the desire of reducing religious
worship to the greatest possible simplicity, however rational it may appear in
itself, and abstractedly considered, will be considerably moderated in such as
bestow a moment's attention upon the imperfection and infirmities of human
nature in its present state. Mankind, generally speaking, have too little
elevation of mind to be much affected with those forms and methods of worship
in which there is nothing striking to the outward senses. The great difficulty
here lies in determining the length which it is prudent to go in the
accommodation of religious ceremonies to human infirmity; and the grand point is
to fix a medium in which a due regard may be shown to the senses and
imagination, without violating the dictates of right reason, or tarnishing the
purity of true religion. It has been said, that the Romish church has gone too
far in its condescension to the infirmities of mankind; and this is what the
ablest defenders of its motley worship have alleged in its behalf. But this
observation is not just; the church of Rome has not so much accommodated itself
to human weakness, as it has abused that weakness, by taking occasion from it
to establish an endless variety of ridiculous ceremonies, destructive of true
religion, and only adapted to promote the riches and despotism of the clergy,
and to keep the multitude still hood-winked in their ignorance and superstition.
How far a just antipathy to the church puppet-shows of the Papists has unjustly
driven some Protestant churches into the opposite extreme, is a matter that
certainly deserves a serious consideration. See Dr. Stennett's Ser. on
Conformity to the World; Robinson's Sermon on Ceremonies; Booth's Essay on the
Kingdom of Christ; Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History; with Mac Laine's Note,
vol. i. p. 203, quarto edit. Jones's Works, vol. 4, p. 267.
Ancient heretics, who denied the deity of Jesus Christ; so named from Cerinthus. They believed that he was a mere man, the son of Joseph and Mary; but that in his baptism a celestial virtue descended on him in the form of a dove; by means whereof he was consecrated by the Holy Spirit, made Christ, and wrought so many miracles; that, as he received it from heaven, it quitted him after his passion, and returned to the place whence it came; so that Jesus, whom they called a pure man, really died, and rose again; but that Christ, who was distinguished from Jesus, did not suffer at all. It was partly to refute this sect that St. John wrote his Gospel. They received the Gospel of St. Matthew, to countenance their doctrine of circumcision; but they omitted the genealogy. They discarded the epistles of St. Paul, because that apostle held circumcision abolished.
In the rabbinical style, is called Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrases in Walton's Polyglot: viz. 1. of Onkelos;--2. of Jonathan, son of Uziel;--3. of Jerusalem. See BIBLE, sect. 19, and TARGUM.
The cup used to administer the wine in the sacrament, and by the Roman catholics in the mass. The use of the chalice, or communicating in both kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity, who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone being allowed the privilege of communicating in both kinds; in direct opposition to our Saviour's words--"Drink ye all of it."
A term we apply to events to denote that they happen without any necessary or foreknown cause. When we say a thing happens by chance, we mean no more than that its cause is unknown to us, and not, as some vainly imagine, that chance itself can be the cause of any thing. "The case of the painter," says Chambers, "who, unable to express the foam at the mouth of the horse he had painted, threw his sponge in despair at the piece, and by chance did that which he could not do before by design, is an eminent instance of what is called chance. Yet it is obvious all we here mean by chance, is, that the painter was not aware of the effect, or that he did not throw the sponge with such a view: not but that he actually did every thing necessary to produce the effect; insomuch that, considering the direction wherein he threw the sponge, together with its form and specific gravity, the colours wherewith it was smeared, and the distance of the hand from the piece, it was impossible, on the present system of things, that the effect should not follow."--The word, as it is often used by the unthinking, is vague and indeterminate--a mere name for nothing.
A lay officer under a bishop, who is judge of his court. In the first ages of the church the bishops had those officers, who were called church lawyers, and were bred up in the knowledge of the civil and canon law: their business was to assist the bishop in his diocese.--We read of no chancellors till Henry the Second's time; but that the king requiring the attendance of the bishops in his councils, it was thought necessary to substitute chancellors in their room for the despatch of business.
Is used for the vocal music of churches. In church history we meet with divers kinds of these; as, 1. Chant Ambrosian, established by St. Ambrose;--2. Chant Gregorian, introduced by pope Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church music. This, at first, was called the Roman song; afterwards the plain song; as the choir and people sing in unison.
The mass of matter supposed to be in confusion before it was divided by the Almighty into its proper classes and elements. It does not appear who first asserted the notion of a chaos. Moses, the earliest of all writers, derives the origin of this world from a confusion of matter, dark, void, deep, without form, which he calls TOHUBOHU; which is precisely the chaos of the Greek and barbarian philosophers. Moses goes no farther than the chaos, nor tells us whence its confused state; and where Moses stops, there precisely do all the rest.
A place of worship.--There are various kinds of chapels in Britain. 1. Domestic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for private worship in their families.--2. Free chapels, such as are founded by kings of England. They are free from all episcopal jurisdiction, and only to be visited by the founder and his successors, which is done by the lord chancellor: yet the king may license any subject to build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent exempt it from the visitation of the ordinary.--3. Chapels in universities belonging to particular universities.--4. Chapels of ease, built for the ease of one or more parishioners that dwell too far from the church, and are served by inferior curates, provided for at the charge of the rector, or of such as have benefit by it, as the composition or custom is.--5. Parochial chapels, which differ from parish churches only in name: they are generally small, and the inhabitants within the district few. If there be a presentation ad ecclesiam instead of capellam, and an admission and institution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church for themselves and families.--6. Chapels which adjoin to and are part of the church: such were formerly built by honourable persons as burying places.--7. The places of worship belonging to the Calvinistic and Arminian Methodists are also generally called chapels, though they are licensed in no other way than the meetings of the Protestant Dissenters.
A person who performs divine service in a
chapel, or is retained in the service of some family to perform divine service.
As to the origin of chaplains, some say the
shrines of relics were anciently covered with a kind of tent, cape, or capella,
i.e. little cape; and that hence the priests who had the care of them were
called chaplains. In time, these relics were reposited in a little church,
either contiguous to a larger, or separate from it; and the name capella, which
was given to the cover, was also given to the place where it was lodged; and
hence the priest who superintended it came to be called capellanus, or
chaplain.
According to a statute of Henry VIII. the persons
vested with a power of retaining chaplains, together with the number each is
allowed to qualify, are as follow: an archbishop eight; a duke or bishop six;
marquis or earl five; viscount four; baron, knight of the garter, or lord
chancellor, three: a duchess, marchioness, countess, baroness, the treasurer or
comptroller of the king's house, clerk of the closet, the king's secretary,
dean of the chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls, each of them two; chief
justice of the king's bench, and ward of the cinque ports, each one. All these
chaplains may purchase a license or dispensation, and take two benefices, with
cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by letters testimonial under hand
and seal, for it is not sufficient that he serve as chaplain in the family.
In England there are forty-eight chaplains to the
king, who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the service to the
family, and to the king in his private oratory, and say grace in the absence of
the clerk of the closet. While in waiting, they have a table and attendance,
but no salary. In Scotland, the king has six chaplains with a salary of 50l.
each; three of them having in addition the deanery of the chapel royal divided
between them, making up above 100l. to each. Their only duty at present is to
say prayers at the election of peers for Scotland to sit in parliament.
A certain instrument of piety made use of by the papists. It is a string of beads, by which they measure or count the number of their prayers.
A community of ecclesiastics belonging to a cathedral or collegiate church. The chief or head of the chapter is the dean; the body consists of canons or prebendaries. The chapter has now no longer a place in the administration of the diocese during the life of the Bishop; but succeeds to the whole episcopal jurisdiction during the vacancy of the see.
1. a sermon preached by the bishop to his clergy;--2. Among the Dissenters, it is a sermon preached to a minister at his ordination, generally by some aged or respectable preacher.
One of the three grand theological graces, consisting in the love of God and our neighbour, or the habit or disposition of loving God with all our heart, and our neighbour as ourselves. "Charity," says an able writer, "consists not in speculative ideas of general benevolence floating in the head, and leaving the heart, as speculations often do, untouched and cold: neither is it confined to that indolent good nature which makes us rest satisfied with being free from inveterate malice, or ill will to our fellow creatures, without prompting us to be of service to any. True charity is an active principle. It is not properly a single virtue; but a disposition residing in the heart as a fountain; whence all the virtues of benignity, candour, forbearance, generosity, compassion, and liberality flow as so many native streams. From general good will to all, it extends its influence particularly to those with whom we stand in nearest connexion, and who are directly within the sphere of our good offices. From the country or community to which we belong, it descends to the smaller associates of neighbourhood, relations, and friends; and spreads itself over the whole circle of social and domestic life. I mean not that it imports a promiscuous undistinguishing affection which gives every man an equal title to our love. Charity, if we should endeavour to carry it so rare, would be rendered an impracticable virtue, and would resolve itself into mere words, without affecting the heart. True charity attempts not to shut our eyes to the distinction between good and bad men; nor to warm our hearts equally to those who befriend and those who injure us. It reserves our esteem for good men, and our complacency for our friends. Towards our enemies, it inspires forgiveness and humanity. It breathes universal candour and liberality of sentiment. It forms gentleness of temper, and dictates affability of manners. It prompts corresponding sympathics with them who rejoice, and them who weep. It teaches us to slight and despise no man. Charity is the comforter of the afflicted, the protector of the oppressed, the reconciler of differences, the intercessor for offenders. It is faithfulness in the friend, public spirit in the magistrate, equity and patience in the judge, moderation in the sovereign, and loyalty in the subject. In parents it is care and attention; in children it is reverence and submission. In a word, it is the soul of social life. It is the sun that enlivens and cheers the abodes of men; not a meteor which occasionally glares, but a luminary, which in its orderly and regular course dispenses a benignant influence." See Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 27,28. Blair's Ser. vol. iv. ser. 2; Scott's Ser. ser. 14; Tillotson's Ser. ser. 158; Paley's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 231; and articles BENEVOLENCE, LOVE.
A kind of spell, supposed by the ignorant to
have an irresistible influence, by means of the concurrence of some infernal
power, both on the minds, lives, and properties of those whom it has for its
object.
"Certain vain ceremonies," says Dr.
Doddridge, "which are commonly called charms, and seem to have no efficacy
at all for producing the effects proposed by them, are to be avoided; seeing if
there be indeed any real efficacy in them, it is generally probable they owe it
to some bad cause; for one can hardly imagine that God should permit good
angels in any extraordinary manner to interpose, or should immediately exert
his own miraculous power on trifling occasions, and upon the performance of
such idle tricks as are generally made the condition of receiving such
benefits."
Purity from fleshly lust. In men it is termed continence. See CONTINENCE. There is a chastity of speech, behaviour, and imagination, as well as of body. Grove gives us the following rules for the conservation of chastity.--1. To keep ourselves fully employed in labours either of the body or the mind: idleness is frequently the introduction to sensuality.--2. To guard the senses, and avoid every thing which may be an incentive to lust. Does the free use of some meats and drinks make the body ungovernable? Does reading certain books debauch the imagination and inflame the passions? Do temptations often enter by the sight? Have public plays, dancings, effeminate music, idle songs, loose habits, and the like, the same effect? He who resolves upon chastity cannot be ignorant what his duty is in all these and such like cases.--3. to implore the Divine Spirit, which is a spirit of purity; and by the utmost regard to his presence and operations to endeavour to retain him with us. Grove's Moral Philos. p. 2. sec. 6.
A sect which arose in Armenia in the seventh century. They are so called from the Armenian word chazus, which signifies a cross, because they were charged with adoring the cross.
Are deceitful practices, in defrauding, or endeavouring to defraud, another of his known right, by means of some artful device contrary to honesty. See HONESTY, JUSTICE.
A disposition of mind free from dejection. Opposed to gloominess. If we consider cheerfulness, says Addison, in three lights, with regard to ourselves, to those we converse with, and to the Great Author of our being, it will not a little recommend itself on each of these accounts. The man who is possessed of this excellent frame of mind is not only easy in his thoughts, but a perfect master of all the powers and faculties of his soul; his imagination is always clear, and his judgment undisturbed; his temper is even and unruffled, whether in action or in solitude. He comes with a relish to all those goods which Nature has provided for him, tastes all the pleasures of the creation which are poured about him, and does not feel the full weight of those evils which may befall him. See HAPPINESS, JOY.
Duties of, to parents. Dr. Doddridge observes, "1. That as children have received important favours from their parents, gratitude, and therefore virtue, requires that they should love them.--2. Considering the superiority of age, and the probable superiority of wisdom, which there is on the side of parents, and also how much the satisfaction and comfort of a parent depend on the respect shown him by his children, it is fit that children should reverence their parents.--3. It is fit that, while the parents are living, and the use of their understanding continued, their children should not ordinarily undertake any matter of great importance, without advising with them, or without very cogent reasons pursue it contrary to their consent.--4. As young people need some guidance and government in their minority, and as there is some peculiar reason to trust the prudence, care, and affection of a parent, preferable to any other person, it is reasonable that children, especially while in their minority, should obey their parents; without which neither the order of families, nor the happiness of the rising generation could be secured: nevertheless, still supposing that the commands of the parent are not inconsistent with the will of God.--5. Virtue requires that, if parents come to want, children should take care to furnish them with the necessaries of life, and, so far as their ability will permit, with the conveniences of it" Doddridge's Lectures, p. 241. vol. i. Paley's Mor. Phil. p. 372. vol. i.
(bishops of the country.) In the ancient church, when the dioceses became enlarged by the conversions of pagans in the country, and villages at a great distance from the city church, the bishops appointed themselves certain assistants, whom they called Chorepiscopi, because by their office they were bishops of the country. There have been great disputes among the learned concerning this order, some thinking that they were mere presbyters; others that there were two sorts, some that had received episcopal ordination, and some that were presbyters only; others think that they were all bishops.
Oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in the Romish and Greek churches in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unction.
The Lord and Saviour of mankind. He is called Christ, or Messiah, because he is anointed, sent, and furnished by God to execute his mediatorial office. See JESUS CHRIST.
By Dr. Johnson, is defined, "a professor of
the religion of Christ;" but in reality a Christian is more than a
professor of Christianity. He is one who imbibes the spirit, participates the
grace, and is obedient to the will of Christ.
The disciples and followers of Christ were first
denominated Christians at Antioch, A.D. 42. The first Christians distinguished
themselves in the most remarkable manner by their conduct and their virtues.
The faithful, whom the preaching of St. Peter had converted, hearkened
attentively to the exhortations of the apostles, who failed not carefully to
instruct them as persons who were entering upon an entire new life. They
attended the temple daily, doing nothing different from the other Jews, because
it was yet not time to separate from them. But they made a still greater
progress in virtue; for they said all that they possessed, and distributed
their goods to the wants of their brethren. The primitive Christians were not
only remarkable for the consistency of their conduct, but were also very
eminently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts and graces bestowed by God
upon them.
The Jews were the first and the most inveterate
enemies the Christians had. They put them to death as often as they had it in
their power; and when they revolted against the Romans, in the time of the
emperor Adrian, Barchochebas, who was at the head of that revolt, employed
against the Christians the most rigorous punishments to compel them to
blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that even in the third century
they endeavoured to get into their hands Christian women, in order to scourge
and stone them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians three times a
day in their synagogues; and their rabbins would not suffer them to converse
with Christians upon any occasion; nor were they contented to hate and detest
them, but they dispatched emissaries all over the world to defame the
Christians and spread all sorts of calumnies against them. They accused them
among other things, of worshipping the sun, and the head of an ass; they
reproached them with idleness and being a useless set of people. They charged
them with treason, and endeavouring to erect a new monarchy against that of the
Romans. They affirmed that in celebrating their mysteries, they used to kill a
child, and eat his flesh. They accused them of the most shocking incests, and
of intemperance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and behaviour of the
first Christians were sufficient to refute all that was said against them, and
evidently demonstrated that these accusations were mere calumny, and the effect
of inveterate malice. Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus and
Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a very particular account of the
Christians in that province, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Trajan,
of which the following is an extract: "I count of every difficulty which
arises to me: I had never been present at the examinations of the Christians;
for which reason I know not what questions have been put to them, nor in what
manner they have been punished. My behaviour towards those who have been
accused to me has been this; I have interrogated them, in order to know whether
they were really Christians. When they have confessed it, I have repeated the
same question two or three times, threatening them with death if they did not
renounce this religion. Those who have persisted in their confession have been
by my order led to punishment. I have even met with some Roman citizens guilty
of this phrenzy, whom, in regard to their quality, I have set apart from the
rest, in order to send them to Rome. These persons declare that their whole
crime, if they are guilty, consists in this: That on certain days they assemble
before sun-rise, to sing alternately the praises of Christ, as of God; and to
oblige themselves, by the performance of their religious rites, not to be
guilty of theft or adultery, to observe inviolably their word, and to be true
to their trust. This disposition has obliged me to endeavour to inform myself
still farther of this matter, by putting to the torture two of their women
servants, whom they called deaconesses; but I could learn nothing more from
them than that the superstition of these people is as ridiculous as their
attachment to it is astonishing."
It is easy to discover the cause of the many
persecutions to which the Christians were exposed during the first three
centuries. The purity of the Christian morality, directly opposite to the
corruption of the pagans, was doubtless one of the most powerful motives of the
public aversion. To this may be added the many calumnies unjustly spread about
concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews; and this occasioned so
strong a prejudice against them, that the pagans condemned them without
enquiring into their doctrine, or permitting them to defend themselves.
Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God, was contrary to one of the most
ancient laws of the Roman empire, which expressly forbade the acknowledging of
any God which had not been approved of by the senate. But, notwithstanding the
violent opposition made to the establishment of the Christian religion, it
gained ground daily and very soon made surprising progress in the Roman empire.
In the third century there were Christians in the senate, in the camp, in the
palace; in short every where but in the temple and the theatres; they filled
the towns, the country, the island. Men and women of all ages and conditions,
and even those of the first dignities, embraced the faith; insomuch that the
pagans complained that the revenues of their temples were ruined. They were in
such great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian expresses it) were they
to have retired into another country, they would have left the Romans only
afrightful solitude. For persecutions of the Christians, see article
PERSECUTION.
Christians may be considered as nominal and real.
There are vast numbers who are called Christians, not because they possess any
love for Christ, but because they happen to be born in a Christian country,
educated by Christian parents, and sometimes attend Christian worship. There
are also many whose minds are well informed respecting the Christian system,
who prefer it to every other, and who make an open profession of it; and yet,
after all, feel but little of the real power of Christianity. A real Christian
is one whose understanding is enlightened by the influences of divine grace,
who is convinced of the depravity of his nature, who sees his own inability to
help himself, who is taught to behold God as the chief good, the Lord Jesus as
the only way to obtain felicity, and that the Holy Spirit is the grand agent in
applying the blessings of the Gospel to his soul. His heart is renovated, and
inclined to revere, honour, worship, trust in, and live to God. His affections
are elevated above the world, and centre in God alone. He embraces him as his
portion, loves him supremely, and is zealous in the defence and support of his
cause. His temper is regulated, his powers roused to vigorous action, his
thoughts spiritual, and his general deportment amiable and uniform. In fine,
the true Christian character exceeds all others as much as the blaze of the
meridian sun outshines the feeble light of the glow-worm.
A sect of Christians very numerous in Balfara, and the neighbouring towns: they formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St. John baptized, and it was from thence they had their name. They hold an anniversary feast of five days, during which they all go to the bishop, who baptizes them with the baptism of St. John. Their baptism is also performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays: they have no notion of the third person in the Trinity; nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full of charms, &c. Their bishoprics descend by inheritance as our estates do, though they have the ceremony of an election.
A sort of Christians in a peninsula of India on
this side the gulf; they inhabit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring
country; these admit of no images, and receive only the cross, to which they
pay a great veneration. They affirm, that the souls of the saints do not see
God till after the day of judgment; they acknowledge but three sacraments, viz.
baptism, orders, and the eucharist; they make no use of holy oils in the
administration of baptism, but after the ceremony, anoint the infant with an
unction composed of oil and walnuts, without any benediction. In the eucharist
they consecrate with little cakes made of oil and salt, and instead of wine
make use of water in which raisins have been infused.
In the Asiatic Researches of the Society
instituted in Bengal, may be found an enlarged account of the Christians of St.
Thomas, which was laid before that society by F. Wrede, Esq. See also Monthly
Magazine for 1804, p. 60. and Dr. Kerr's Report to Lord Behtich, on the state
of the Christians inhabiting the kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. Evang. Mag.
1807. p. 473.
The religion of Christians.
I. Christianity, foundation of. Most, if not all
Christians, whatever their particular tenets may be, acknowledge the Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments as the sole foundation of their faith and
practice. But as these books, or at least particular passages in them, have
from the ambiguity of language been variously interpreted by different
commentators, these diversities have given birth to a multiplicity of different
sects. These, however, or at least the greatest number of them, appeal to the
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the ultimate standard, the only
infallible rule of faith and manners. If asked by what authority these books
claim an absolute right to determine the consciences and understandings of men
with regard to what they should believe, and what they should do, they answer,
that all Scripture, whether for doctrine, correction, or reproof, was given by
immediate inspiration from God. If again interrogated how those books which
they call Scripture are authenticated, they reply, that the Old and New
Testaments are proved to be the word of God, by evidences both external and
internal. See $ 2. and article REVELATION.
II. Christianity, evidences of the truth of. The
external evidences of the authenticity and divine authority of the Scriptures
have been divided into direct and colleteral. The direct evidences are such as
arise from the nature, consistency, and probability of the facts; and from the
simplicity, uniformity, competency, and fidelity of the testimonies by which
they are supported. The collateral evidences are either the same occurrences
supported by heathen testimonies, or others which concur with and corroborate
the history of Christianity. Its internal evidences arise either from its exact
conformity with the character of God, from its aptitude to the frame and
circumstances of man, or from those supernatural convictions and assistances
which are impressed on the mind by the immediate operation of the Divine
Spirit. We shall here chiefly follow Dr. Doddridge, and endeavour to give some
of the chief evidences which have been brought forward, and which every
unprejudiced mind must confess are unanswerable.
First. Taking the matter merely in theory, ti
will appear highly probable that such a system as the Gospel should be, indeed,
a divine revelation.
1. The case of mankind is naturally such as to
need a divine revelation, 1 John v. 19. Rom. i. Eph. iv.--2. There is from the
light of nature considerable encouragement to hope that God would favour his
creatures with so needful a blessing as a revelation appears.--3. We may easily
conclude, that if a revelation were given, it would be introduced and
transmitted in such a manner as Christianity is said to have been.--4. That the
main doctrines of the Gospel are of such a nature as we might in general
suppose those of a divine revelation would be; rational, practical, and
sublime, Heb. xi. 6. Mark xii. 20. 1 Tim. ii. 5. Matt. v. 48. Matt. x.
29,30.Philippians iv. 8. Romans ii. 6,40.
Secondly. It is, in fact, certain that
Christianity is indeed, a divine revelation; for, I. The books of the New
Testament, now in our hands, were written by the first preachers and publishers
of Christianity. In proof of this, observe, 1. that is certain that
Christianity is not a new religion, but that it was maintained by great
multitudes quickly after the time in which Jesus is said to have appeared.--2.
That there was certainly such a person as Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified
at Jerusalem, when Pontius Pilate was governor there.--3. The first publishers
of this religion wrote books which contained an account of the life and
doctrine of Jesus, their master, and which went by the name of those that now
make up our New Testament.--4. That the books of the New Testament have been
preserved, in the main, uncorrupted to the present time, in the original
language in which they were written.--5. That the translation of them now in
our hands may be depended upon as, in all things most material, agreeable to
the original. Now, II. From allowing the New Testament to be genuine, according
to the above proof, it will certainly follow that Christianity is a divine
revelation; for, in the first place, it is exceedingly evident that the writers
of the New Testament certainly knew whether the facts were true or false. John
i. 3. John xix. 27,35. Acts xxvii. 7, 9.--2. That the character of these
writers, so far as we can judge by their works, seems to render them worthy of
regard, and leaves no room to imagine they intended to deceive us. The manner
in which they tell their story is most happily adapted to gain our belief.
There is no air of declamation and harangue; nothing that looks like artifice
and design: no apologies, no encomiums, no characters, no reflections, no
digressions; but the facts are recounted with great simplicity, just as they
seem to have happened; and those facts are left to speak for themselves.--Their
integrity likewise evidently appears in the freedom with which they mention
those circumstances which might have exposed their Master and themselves to the
greatest contempt amongst prejudiced and inconsiderate men, such as they knew
they must generally expect to meet with. John i.45,46. John vii. 52. Luke ii.
4,7. Mark vi. 3. Matt. viii. 20. John vii. 48. It is certain that there are in
their writings the most genuine traces not only of a plain and honest, but a
most pious and devout, a most benevolent and generous disposition, as every one
must acknowledge who reads their writings.--3. the apostles were under no
temptation to forge a story of this kind, or to publish it to the world knowing
it to be false.--4. Had they done so, humanly speaking, they must quickly have
perished in ti, and their foolish cause must have died with them, without ever
gaining any credit in the world. Reflect more particularly on the nature of
those grand facts, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Christ, which
formed the great foundation of the Christian scheme, as first exhibited by the
apostles. The resurrection of a dead man, and his ascension into an abode in
the upper world, were such strange things, that a thousand objections would
immediately have been raised against them; and some extraordinary proof would
have been justly required as a balance to them. Consider the manner in which
the apostles undertook to prove the truth of their testimony to these facts;
and it will evidently appear, that, instead of confirming their scheme, it must
have been sufficient utterly to have overthrown it, had it been itself the most
probable imposture that the wit of man could ever have contrived. See Acts iii.
ix. xiv, xix, &c. They did not merely assert that they had seen miracles
wrought by Jesus, but that he had endowed them with a variety of miraculous
powers; and these they undertook to display not in such idle and useless tricks
as slight of hand might perform, but in such solid and important works as
appeared worthy of divine interposition, and entirely superior to human power.
Nor were these things undertaken in a corner, in a circle of friends or
dependants; nor were they said to be wrought, as might be suspected, by any
confederates in the fraud; but they were done often in the most public manner.
Would impostors have made such pretensions as these? or, if they had, must they
not immediately have been exposed and ruined? Now, if the New Testament be
genuine, then it is certain that the apostles pretend to have wrought miracles
in the very presence of those to whom their writings were addressed; nay, more
they profess likewise to have conferred those miraculous gifts in some
considerable degrees on others, even on the very persons to whom they write,
and they appeal to their consciences as to the truth of it. And could there
possibly be room for delusion here?--5. It is likewise certain that the
apostles did gain early credit, and succeeded in a most wonderful manner. This
is abundantly proved by the vast number of churches established in early ages
at Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Collosse, &c.&c.&c.--6. That, admitting
the facts which they testified concerning Christ to be true, then it was
reasonable for their contempories, and is reasonable for us, to receive the
Gospel which they have transmitted to us as a divine revelation. The great
thing they asserted was, that Jesus was the Christ, and that he was proved to
be so by prophecies accomplished in him, and by miracles wrought by him, and by
others in his name. If we attend to these, we shall find them to be no contemptible
arguments; but must be forced to acknowledge, that, the premises being
established, the conclusion most easily and necessarily follows; and this
conclusion, that Jesus is the Christ, taken in all its extent, is an abstract
of the Gospel revelation, and therefore is sometimes put for the whole of it,
Acts viii. 37. Acts xvii. 18. See Articles MIRACLE and PROPHECY.--7. The truth
of the Gospel has also received farther and very considerable confirmation from
what has happened in the world since it was first published. And here we must
desire every one to consider what God has been doing to confirm the Gospel
since its first publication, and he will find it a farther evidence of its
Divine original. We might argue at large from its surprising propagation in the
world; from the miraculous powers with which not only the apostles, but
succeeding preachers of the Gospel, and other converts, were endowed; from the
accomplishment of prophesies recorded in the New Testament; and from the
preservation of the Jews as a distinct people, notwithstanding the various
difficulties and persecutions through which they have passed. We must not,
however, forget to mention the confirmation it receives from the methods which
its enemies have taken to destroy it; and these have generally been either
persecution or falsehood, or cavilling at some particulars in revelation,
without entering into the grand argument on which it is built, and fairly
debating what is offered in its defence. The cause has gained considerably by
the opposition made to it: the more it has been tried, the more it has been
approved: and we are bold to say no honest man, unfettered by prejudice, can
examine this system in all its parts, without being convinced that its origin
is divine.
III. Christianity, general doctrines of. "It
must be obvious," says an ingenious author, "to every reflecting
mind, that, whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion a priori, or
contemplate those which have already been exhibited, certain facts, principles,
or data, must be pre-established; from whence will result a particular frame of
mind and course of action suitable to the character and dignity of that Being
by whom the religion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and situation of
those agents, who are commanded to observe it. Hence Christianity may be
divided into credenda or doctrines, and agenda or precepts. As the great
foundation of his religion, therefore, the Christian believes the existence and
government of one eternal and infinite Essence, which for ever retains in
itself the cause of its own existence, and inherently possesses all those
perfections which are compatible with its nature; such are its almighty power,
omniscience, wisdom, infinite justice, boundless goodness, and universal
presence. In this indivisible essence the Christian recognises three distinct
subsistences, yet distinguished in such a manner as not to be incompatible
either with essential unity, or simplicity of being, or with their personal
distinction; each of them possesses the same nature and properties to the same
extent. This infinite Being was graciously pleased to create an universe
replete with intelligences, who might enjoy his glory, participate his
happiness, and imitate his perfections. But as these beings were not immutable,
but left to the freedom of their own will, degeneracy took place, and that in a
rank of intelligence superior to man. But guilt is never stationary. Impatient
of itself, and cursed with its own feelings, it proceeds from bad to worse,
whilst the poignancy of its torments increases with the number of its
perpetrations. Such was the situation of Satan and his apostate angels. They
attempted to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and were, alas, but
too successful! Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcilable principles which
operate in his nature; hence that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of
rectitude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of sincerity and fraud,
exhibited through his whole conduct; hence the darkness of his understanding,
the depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the irregularity of his
affections, and the absolute subversion of his whole internal economy. The
seeds of perdition soon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror. All the
hostilities of nature were confronted, and the whole sublunary creation became
a theatre of disorder and mischief. Here the Christian once more appeals to
fact and experience. If these things are so; if man be the vessel of guilt, and
the victim of misery, he demands how this constitution of things can be
accounted for? how can it be supposed that a being so wicked and unhappy should
be the production of an infinitely good and infinitely perfect Creator? He
therefore insists that human nature must have been disarranged and contaminated
by some violent shock; and that, of consequence, without the light diffused
over the face of things by Christianity, all nature must remain in inscrutable
and inexplicable mystery. To redress these evils, to re-establish the empire of
rectitude and happiness, to restore the nature of man to its primitive dignity,
to satisfy the remonstrances of infinite justice, to purify every original or
contracted stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the power of vice, the
eternal Son of God, from whom Christianity takes its name, and to whom it owes
its origin, descended from the bosom of his Father, assumed the human nature,
became the representative of man; endured a severe probation in that character;
exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness, and at last ratified his
doctrine, and fully accomplished all the ends of his mission, by a cruel,
unmerited, and ignominious death. Before he left the world, he delivered the
doctrines of salvation, and the rules of human conduct, to his apostles, whom
he empowered to instruct the world in all that concerned their eternal
felicity, and whom he invested with miraculous gifts to ascertain the reality
of what they taught. To them he likewise promised another comforter, even the
Divine Spirit, who should remove the darkness, console the woes, and purify the
stains of human nature. Having remained for a part of three days under the
power of death, he rose again from the grave; appeared to his disciples, and
many others; conversed with them for some time, then re-ascended to heaven;
from whence the Christian expects him, according to his promise, to appear as
the Sovereign Judge of the living, and the dead, from whose awards there is no
appeal, and by whose sentence the destiny of the righteous and the wicked shall
be eternally fixed. Soon after his departure to the right hand of his Father
(where in his human nature he sits supreme of all created beings, and invested
with the absolute administration of heaven and earth,) the Spirit of grace and
consolation descended on his apostles with visible signatures of divine power
and presence. Nor were his salutary operations confined to them, but extended
to all who did not by obstinate guilt repel his influences. These, indeed, were
less conspicuous than at the glorious aera when they were visibly exhibited in
the persons of the apostles. But, though his energy be less observable, it is
by no means less effectual to all the purposes of grace and mercy. The
Christian is convinced that there is and shall continue to be a society upon
earth, who worship God as revealed in Jesus Christ, who believe his doctrines,
who observe his precepts, and who shall be saved by the merits of his death, in
the use of these external means of salvation which he hath appointed. He also
believes that the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper, the
interpretation and application of Scripture, the habitual exercise of public
and private devotion, are obviously calculated to diffuse and promote the
interests of truth and religion by superinducing the salutary habits of faith,
love, and repentance. He is firmly persuaded, that, at the consummation of all
things, when the purposes of Providence in the various revolutions of
progressive nature are accomplished, the whole human race shall once more issue
from their graves; some to immortal felicity in the actual perception and
enjoyment of their Creator's presence, and others to everlasting shame and
misery."
IV. Christianity, morality and superiority of. It
has been well observed, "that the two grand principles of action,
according to the Christian, are the love of God, which is the sovereign passion
in every gracious mind; and the love of man, which regulates our actions
according to the various relations in which we stand, whether to communities or
individuals. This sacred connection ought never to be totally extinguished by
any temporary injury. It ought to subsist in some degree even amongst enemies.
It requires that we should pardon the offences of others, as we expect pardon
for our own; and that we should no farther resist evil than is necessary for
the preservation of personal rights and social happiness. It dictates every
relative and reciprocal duty between parents and children, masters and
servants, governors and subjects, friends and friends, men and men: nor does it
merely enjoin the observation of equity, but likewise inspires the most sublime
and extensive charity; a boundless and disinterested effusion of tenderness for
the whole species, which feels their distress, and operates for their relief
and improvement."
"Christianity," it has also been
observed (and with the greatest propriety,) "is superior to all other
religions. The disciple of Jesus not only contends that no system of religion
has ever yet been exhibited so consistent with itself, so congruous to
philosophy and the common sense of mankind, as Christianity: he likewise avers
that it is infinitely more productive of real consolation than all other
religious or philosophical tenets which have ever entered into the soul, or been
applied to the heart of man. For what is death to that mind which considers
eternity as the career of its existence? What are the frowns of men to him who
claims an eternal world as his inheritance? What is the loss of friends to that
heart which feels, with more than natural conviction, that it shall quickly
rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, and permanent intercourse, than any of
which the present life is susceptible? What are the vicissitudes of external
things to a mind which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless
and immutable felicity? What are mortifications, disappointments, and insults,
to a spirit which is conscious of being the original offspring and adopted
child of God: which knows that its omnipotent Father will in proper time
effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its nature? In a word, as this
earth is but a speck in the creation, as time is not an instant in proportion
to eternity, such are the hopes and prospects of the Christian in comparison of
every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgement,
the eternal wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man, that a religion
so worthy of God, so suitable to the frame and circumstances of our nature, so
consonant to all the dictates of reason, so friendly to the dignity and
improvement of intelligent beings, so pregnant with genuine comfort and
delight, should be rejected and despised by any of the human race."
V. Christianity, propagation and success of.
Despised as Christianity has been by many, yet it has had an extensive progress
through the world, and still remains to be professed by great numbers of
mankind; though it is to be lamented many are unacquainted with its genuine
influence. It was early and rapidly propagated through the whole Roman empire,
which then contained almost the whole known world: and herein we cannot but
admire both the wisdom and the power of God. "Destitute of all human
advantages," says a good writer, "protected by no authority, assisted
by no art; not recommended by the reputation of its author, not enforced by
eloquence in its advocates, the word of God grew mightily and prevailed. Twelve
men, poor, artless, and illiterate, we behold triumphing over the fiercest and
most determined opposition; over the tyranny of the magistrate, and the
subtleties of the philosopher; over the prejudices of the Gentile, and the
bigotry of the Jew. They established a religion which held forth high and
venerable mysteries, such as the pride of man would induce him to suspect,
because he could not perfectly comprehend them; which preached doctrines pure
and spiritual, such as corrupt nature was prone to oppose, because it shrunk
from the severity of their discipline; which required its followers to renounce
almost every opinion they had embraced as sacred, and every interest they had
pursued as important; which even exposed them to every species of danger and
infamy; to persecution unmerited and unpitied; to the gloom of a prison, and to
the pangs of death. Hopeless as this prospect might appear to the view of
short-sighted man, the Gospel yet emerged from the obscurity in which it was
likely to be overwhelmed by the complicated distresses of its friends, and the
unrelenting cruelty of its foes. It succeeded in a peculiar degree, and in a
peculiar manner; it derived that success from truth, and obtained it under
circumstances where falsehood must have been detected and crushed."
"Although," says the elegant Porteus,
"Christianity has not always been so well understood, or so honestly
practised, as it ought to have been; although its spirit has been often
mistaken, and its precepts misapplied, yet, under all these disadvantages, it
has gradually produced a visible change in those points which most materially
concern the peace and quiet of the world. Its beneficent spirit has spread
itself through all the different relations and modifications of life, and
communicated its kindly influence to almost every public and private concern of
mankind. It has insensibly worked itself into the inmost frame and constitution
of civil states. It has given a tinge to the temper and administration of their
laws. It has restrained the spirit of the prince and the madness of the people.
It has softened the rigour of despotism, and tamed the insolence of conquest.
It has in some degree taken away the edge of the sword, and thrown even over
the horrors of war a veil of mercy. It has descended into families, has
diminished the pressure of private tyranny; improved every domestic endearment;
given tenderness to the parent, humanity to the master, respect to superiors,
to inferiors ease; so that mankind are, upon the whole, even in a temporal
view, under infinite obligations to the mild and pacific temper of the Gospel,
and have reaped from it more substantial worldly benefits than from substantial
worldly benefits than from any other institution upon earth. As one proof of
this (among many others,) consider only the shocking carnage made in the human
species by the exposure of infants, the gladiatorial shows, which sometimes
cost Europe twenty or thirty thousand lives in a month; and the exceedingly
cruel usage of slaves, allowed and practised by the ancient pagans. These were
not the accidental and temporary excesses of a sudden fury, but were legal and
established, and constant methods of murdering and tormenting mankind. Had
Christianity done nothing more than brought into disuse (as it confessedly has
done) the two former of these human customs, entirely, and the latter to a very
great degree, it had justly merited the title of the benevolent religion: but
this is far from being all. Throughout the more enlightened parts of
Christendom there prevails a gentleness of manners widely different from the
ferocity of the most civilized nations of antiquity; and that liberality with
which every species of distress is relieved, is a virtue peculiar to the
Christian name."
But we may ask farther, what success has it had
on the mind of man, as it respects his eternal welfare? How many thousands have
felt its power, rejoiced in its benign influence, and under its dictates been
constrained to devote themselves to the glory and praise of God? Burdened with
guilt, incapable of finding relief from human resources, the mind has here
found peace unspeakable, in beholding, that sacrifice which alone could atone
for transgression. Here the hard and impenitent heart has been softened, the
impetuous passions restrained, the ferocious temper subdued, powerful
prejudices conquered, ignorance dispelled, and the obstacles to real happiness
removed. Here the Christian, looking round on the glories and blandishments of
this world, has been enabled with a noble contempt to despise all. Here death
itself, the king of terrors, has lost its sting; and the soul, with an holy
magnanimity, has borne up in the agonies of a dying hour, and sweetly sung
itself away to everlasting bliss.
In respect to its future spread, we have reason
to believe that all nations shall feel its happy effects. The prophecies are
pregnant with matter as to this belief. It seems that not only a nation or a
country, but the whole habitable glob